4.4 Food Security Dimensions and Indices

4.4.1 Food Security Dimensions and Indices

We selected several „easy-to-measure“ indicators and four dimensions to be used in a food security assessment of your study region, indicating literature and data sources.

To cope with the limitations of PoU, FAO established a new and more comprehensive set of food security indicators—Suite Of Food Security Indicators (FAO, 2012). The first implementation of this suite was a joint effort in 2012 between the FAO, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the World Food Programme (WFP), where a set of indicators were firstly published in “The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) 2012” report (FAO, WFP, IFAD, 2012). Since its launch in 2012 and up to date, SOFI reports use this suite to assess the food security status annually. The suite addresses the four dimensions of food security and consists of 26 indicators, including the PoU.

Jones et al. (2013) emphasize that the additional indicators provide further information beyond food availability, enabling for better assessment of food security status, by covering aspects such as food prices volatility, share of food expenditure of the poor, political stability, absence of violence, among others.

Following we list the 26 indicators under their corresponding dimensions as defined by FAO (2012):

Indicators for availability

Average dietary energy supply adequacy
Average value of food production
Share of dietary energy supply derived from cereals, roots and tubers
Average protein supply
Average supply of protein of animal origin

Indicators for affordability

Rail lines density
Gross domestic product per capita (in purchasing power equivalent)
Prevalence of undernourishment
Prevalence of severe food insecurity in the total population
Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the total population

Indicators for stability

Cereal import dependency ratio
Percentage of arable land equipped for irrigation
Value of food imports over total merchandise exports
Political stability and absence of violence/terrorism
Per capita food production variability
Per capita food supply variability

4.4.2 Food availability indices – how can I measure food availability?(view table)

Average dietary energy supply adequacy (DES): Average dietary energy supply adequacy (DES) is the a percentage of the Average Dietary Energy Requirement (ADER). Each country’s or region’s average supply of calories for food consumption is normalized by the average dietary energy requirement estimated for its population to provide an index of adequacy of the food supply in terms of calories.

Analyzing DES together with the prevalence of undernourishment allows discerning whether undernourishment is mainly due to insufficiency of the food supply or to particularly bad distribution.

Average value of food production expresses the food net production value (in constant 2004-06 international dollars), as estimated by FAO and published by FAOSTAT, in per capita terms. It provides a cross country comparable measure of the relative economic size of the food production sector in the country.

Number of people undernourished (million) (3-year average) is the estimated number of people at risk of undernourishment. It is calculated by applying the estimated prevalence of undernourishment to total population in each period.

Prevalence of undernourishment (PoU) is the probability that a randomly selected individual from the population consumes an amount of calories that is insufficient to cover her/his energy requirement for an active and healthy life. The indicator is computed by comparing a probability distribution of habitual daily dietary energy consumption with a threshold level called the minimum dietary energy Requirement. Both are based on the notion of an average individual in the reference population.

Depth of the food deficit indicates how many calories would be needed to lift the undernourished from their status, everything else being constant. The average intensity of food deprivation of the undernourished, estimated as the difference between the average dietary energy requirement and the average dietary energy consumption of the undernourished population (food-deprived), is multiplied by the number of undernourished to provide an estimate of the total food deficit in the country, which is then normalized by the total population.

Share of dietary energy supply derived from cereals, roots and tubers (kcal/cap/day) (3-year average) expresses the energy supply (in kcal/caput/day) provided by cereals, roots and tubers as a percentage of the total Dietary Energy Supply (DES) (in kcal/caput/day) calculated from the corresponding countries in the FAOSTAT food balance sheets. This indicator provides information on the quality of the diet. It provides a cross country comparable measure of the share of dietary energy supply derived from cereals, roots and tubers.

Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the total population (percent) (3-year average) is an estimate of the percentage of people in the population who live in households classified as moderately or severely food insecure. The assessment is conducted using data collected with the Food Insecurity Experience Scale or a compatible experience-based food security measurement questionnaire (such as the HFSSM).

The probability to be food insecure is estimated using the one-parameter logistic Item Response Theory model (the Rasch model) and thresholds for classification are made cross country comparable by calibrating the metrics obtained in each country against the FIES global reference scale, maintained by FAO.

Average protein supply - National average protein supply (expressed in grams per caput per day) includes the following groups: meat; offals; animal fats and products; milk and products; eggs, fish, seafood.

4.4.3 Food accessibility indicators –how can I measure food accessibility?(view table)

Road density: Total road network includes motorways, highways, and main or national roads, secondary or regional roads, and all other roads in a country. A motorway is a road designed and built for motor traffic that separates the traffic flowing in opposite directions.

Percent of paved roads over total roads are those surfaced with crushed stone (macadam) and hydrocarbon binder or bituminized agents, with concrete, or with cobblestones, as a percentage of all the country’s roads, measured in length. Rail lines density corresponds to the ratio between the length of railway route available for train service, irrespective of the number of parallel tracks (rail lines, total route in km) with the area of the country.

Prevalence of food inadequacy is conceptually analogous to the prevalence of undernourishment , but calculated setting the caloric threshold to a higher level, by using a Physical Activity Level (PAL) coefficient of 1.75, as opposed to 1.55. It measures the percentage of the population that is at risk of not covering the food requirements associated with normal physical activity, and therefore including also those who, even though cannot be considered chronically undernourished, are likely being conditioned in their economic activity by insufficient food. While the PoU is an estimator of chronic food deprivation (“hunger”), this new estimator is a less conservative measure of food inadequacy in the population.

Access to improved water sources refers to the percentage of the population with reasonable access to an adequate amount of water from an improved source, such as a household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected well or spring, and rainwater collection. Unimproved sources include vendors, tanker trucks, and unprotected wells and springs. Reasonable access is defined as the availability of at least 20 liters a person a day from a source within one kilometer of the dwelling.

Access to improved sanitation facilities refers to the percentage of the population with at least adequate access to excreta disposal facilities that can effectively prevent human, animal, and insect contact with excreta. Improved facilities range from simple but protected pit latrines to flush toilets with a sewerage connection.

4.4.4 Food affordability indicators –how can I measure Food affordability?(view table)

GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP): PPP GDP is gross domestic product converted to international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. An international dollar has the same purchasing power over GDP as the U.S. dollar has in the United States. GDP at purchaser’s prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Data are in constant 2011 international dollars

Domestic food price level index is an indicator of the relative price of food in a country. The indicator is calculated from the 2011 International Comparison Program (ICP) data from the World Bank as well as general and food consumer price indices from the International Labour Organization made consistent and available on FAOSTAT. Specifically, the ratio of food and non-alcoholic beverages expenditure to actual individual consumption is calculated in purchasing power parity terms relative to the United States. To control for inflation, this ratio is forecasted and backcasted using the ratio of a country’s Food Consumer Price Index (FPI) and General Consumer Price Index (CPI) using a 2011 base year, relative to the United States. The indicator is computed for countries for which International Comparison Program data as well as general and food consumer price indices are available.

Share of food expenditure of the poor - Relevance: According to the Engel’s Law, the higher the income of a household, the lower the proportion of income spent on food. When applied at the National level, this indicator reflects the living standard of a country, as well as the vulnerability of a country to food price increases. Due to the lack/unreliability of income data, this indicator has been built as the ratio between food consumption and total consumption, hence using total consumption as a proxy income. Finally, given the higher vulnerability of the poorer households to food price increase, this indicator only encompasses the share of food consumption of the lowest income quintile of a country population.

The domestic food price volatility index measures the variability in the relative price of food in a country. The indicator is calculated from the monthly domestic food price level index using monthly consumer and general food price indices and purchasing power parity data from the International Comparison Program conducted by the World Bank. Month-to-month growth rates are calculated, and the standard deviation of these growth rates are calculated over the previous 8 months (8-months rolling standard deviation). The average of these standard deviations is then computed to obtain an annual volatility indicator. The indicator is available for 130 countries for which monthly general and food consumer price indices and purchasing power parity data are available.

4.4.5 Food Stability indices – how can I measure Food Stability? (view table)

Cereal import dependency ratio provides a measure of the dependence of a country or region from cereal imports. The greater the indicator value, the higher the dependence. It tells how much of the available domestic food supply of cereals has been imported and how much comes from the country’s own production. It is computed as (cereal imports - cereal exports)/(cereal production + cereal imports - cereal exports) * 100. Values <= 100. Negative values indicate that the country is a net exporter of cereals.

Percentage of arable land equipped for irrigation: “Ratio between arable land equipped for irrigation and total arable land. Arable land is defined as the land under temporary agricultural crops (multiple-cropped areas are counted only once), temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow (less than five years). The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included in this category. Data for arable land are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable. Total arable land equipped for irrigation is defined as the area equipped to provide water (via irrigation) to the crops. It includes areas equipped for full and partial control irrigation, equipped lowland areas, pastures, and areas equipped for spate irrigation.”

Value of food imports over total merchandise exports (Value of food (excl. fish) imports over total merchandise exports): This indicator provides a measure of vulnerability and captures the adequacy of foreign exchange reserves to pay for food imports, which has implications for national food security depending on production and trade patterns.

Political stability and absence of violence/terrorism measures perceptions of the likelihood that the government will be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means, including politically-motivated violence and terrorism.”

Per capita food production variability corresponds to the variability of the “food net per capita production value in constant 2004-2006 international $” as disseminated in FAOSTAT.

Per capita food supply variability corresponds to the variability of the “food supply in kcal/caput/day” as disseminated in FAOSTAT.

4.4.6 Example: Indicators used in SDG 2 reporting (view table)


Most relevant targets are 2.1 and 2.2

The section above shows which indicators are used to monitor SDG 2. Recall that SDG 2 puts food security in its centre with the main objective to

“end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (UN, 2021). There are 14 different indicators that measure the progress towards sub-targets of SDG 2. We will focus on SDG 2.1 and SDG 2.2.

Target 2.1

is the first target, stating “By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round” (UN, 2021). There are two indicators used to measure target 2.1:

Indicator 2.1.1

Prevalence of undernourishment:This indicator estimates the prevalence of undernourishment based on the share of population consuming insufficient food. Insufficient food consumption means thatindividuals do not reach the required dietary energy levels that one needs to maintain a normal, active, and healthy life. The indicator is expressed as a percentage.

Indicator 2.1.2

Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES):This indicators measures the share of a population that experienced food insecurity. The indicator allows for a distinction of experienced severity of food security, accounting for moderate or severe levels of food security during a given time period. The severity of food insecurity is measured based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale, short FIES. FIES is a is a measurement standard that has been established by the FAO in more than 140 countries across the world. Regional and global estimates of the prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity are expressed as percentage of the total population.

Target 2.2

“By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons”. Three indicators are employed to measure progress towards SDG 2.2:

Indicator 2.2.1

Prevalence of stunting (where height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age: This indicator takes child growth as a proxy to reflect child nutritional status. The indicator is computed based on the distribution of heights of all children of a certain age. Prevalence of stunting is indicated when the average of differences from the median for each member of the reference population is <- 2. Data for this indicator mainly comes from nationally representative household surveys. UNICEF, WHO and the World Bank group compute the indicator based on data provided by ministries of health, national offices of statistics or national institutes of nutrition. Currently, Indicator 2.2.1 is available for more than 150 countries worldwide.

Indicator 2.2.2

Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age, by type (wasting and overweight): Nationally representative household surveys are the data source for most of the countries. The indicator is computed based on the distribution of weight for height of all children of a certain age. Prevalence of malnutrition is indicated by weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards.

Indicator 2.2.3

Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status as percentageThe indicators shows the percentage of women between 15−49 years with a haemoglobin concentration less than 120 g/L (for nonpregnant women and lactating women) or less than 110 g/L if women are pregnant. Data is mainly collected from population-based surveys. Survey reports are entered into Micronutrients Database of the WHO Vitamin and Mineral Information System (VMNIS). The WHO then compiles the data from the VMNIS and computes the indicator 2.2.3.

4.4.7 Example: Food Security Information and Knowledge Sharing System – Sudan (view table)

Food Security Information and Knowledge Sharing System – Sudan - continued table (view table)

One example for a national database that strengthens and improves food security information and data management is the Food Security Information and Knowledge Sharing System - Sudan Federal Food Security Technical Secretariat (FSIS/FSIN). The platform was developed to help Sudan monitor the food security situation and design or improve current food policies and programmes. The database help to determine social aspects of food security such as nutrition, food-related health issues, organization and community involvement.

Indicators used in the database are classified according to the four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization and stability. Currently, the platform uses 35 indicators: 5 for availability, 10 for access, 13 for utilization and 7 for stability.

Availability

Measuring the availability dimension

Average dietary energy supply adequacy, (%)
Average value of food production, (International $ per capita)
Share of dietary energy supply derived from cereals, roots and tubers, (%)
Average vegetarian protein supply, (gr/capita/day)
Average supply of protein of animal origin, (gr/capita/day)

Accessibility

The accessibility dimension is divided into economic access, physical access, and indicators to measure the prevalence of undernourishment.

Quantification of access

Economic access is measured using
gross domestic product per capita, (in purchasing power equivalent)
the domestic food price level index, (Index)

Physical access is quantified using
the percent of paved roads over total roads, (%)
the road density, (km of road/ 100 km² of land area)
the rail lines density, (km/km²)

Indicators for Prevalence of undernourishment are
Prevalence of undernourishment, (%)
Number of people undernourished, (number of people)
Share of food expenditure of the poor, (%)
Depth of the food deficit (%)
Prevalence of food inadequacy (%)

Utilization

The dimension of utilization is divided into the sub-dimensions Non-food Items and Food Quality and Micro Nutrients. The former being measured using the two indicators access to improved water sources and access to improved sanitation facilities.

Indicators to determine food Quality and Micro Nutrients:

Percentage of children under 5 years of age affected by wasting, (%)
Percentage of children under 5 years of age who are stunted, (%)
Percentage of children under 5 years of age who are underweight, (%)
Percentage of adults who are underweight, (%)
Prevalence of anaemia among pregnant women, (%)
Prevalence of anaemia among children under 5 years of age, (%)
Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency Prevalence of iodine deficiency, (%)

Stability

Stability is further divided into exposure and political stability and absence of violence/terrorism.

Exposure indicators are as follows:

Cereal import dependency ratio
Percent of arable land equipped for irrigation
Value of food imports over total merchandise exports

Political stability and absence of violence or terrorism is determined using the following indicators:

Domestic food price volatility
Per capita food production variability
Per capita food supply variability



Continue to next section

References

4.4.1 Food Security Dimensions and Indices

4.4.2 Food availability indices –how can I measure food availability? Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1997). FAOSTAT statistical database. [Rome] :FAO. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS

4.4.3 **Food accessibility indicators –how can I measure food accessibility?

* 4.4.4 **Food affordability indicators –how can I measure Food affordability?*

4.4.5 Food Stability indices –how can I measure Food Stability?

4.4.6 Example: Indicators used in SDG 2 reporting

4.4.7 Example: Food Security Information and Knowledge Sharing System – Sudan

4.4.8 Example: Food Security Information and Knowledge Sharing System – Sudan